All believe emotions are caused by a stimulus and result in a behavior. Iii) Neisser and Harsh (1992) Emotion Theories Theories which provide explanations for emotional responses. Studies supporting flashbulb memory theory i) Brown and Kulik (1977) Ii) Because flashbulb memories are reconstructed, their emotional nature may influence the memory's reconstruction. Limitations of flashbulb memory theory i) Can't explain why emotional memories aren't more accurate than others. Strengths of flashbulb memory theory i) Can explain why emotional and/or personally relevant memories are more vivid.

Iii) How the person learned of the shocking event. 6 main features of a flashbulb memory i) Where the person was. Flashbulb memory A clear and vivid episodic/explicit long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event. Found that these emotionally shocking events were remembered well. Brown and Kulik (1977) Questionnaires asked 80 participants to recall circumstances where they had learned of shocking events (assassinations of public figures). It found that autobiographical memory is reliable, but recognition is more reliable than free recall of names or faces. Bahrick et al (1975) This study asked participants to recall students from their high school by name or by face. Challenged Loftus and Palmer's research due to a lack of ecological validity. Yuille and Cutshall (1986) 13 witnesses to a real life shooting were interviewed in which leading questions had little impact on the memories when recalled later. Challenged flashbulb memory theory, although no sure way to measure levels of emotional arousal of each individual.

Many could not remember most of the things they remembered 24 hours after. Participants had to write a description of their memories surrounding a certain shocking event (challenger explosion) less than 24 hours after disaster, then asked 2 1/2 years later. Neisser and Harsch (1992) Tested theory of flashbulb memory. Shaw & Porter (2015) Replication of Loftus and Pickrell (1995) w/ very similar procedure for implanting false memories and very similar results (70% success rate).

Reliability of memory psychology